A Brief Look at Italian History

The history of Italy is characterized by two periods of unity—the Roman Empire (27 BCE–476 CE) and the modern democratic republic formed after the end of World War II. Between those two periods may have been a millennium and a half of division and disruption, but that disruption saw one of the worlds great flowering of art, the Renaissance (circa 1400–1600 CE). Italy, sitting in southwestern Europe, is comprised largely of a boot-shaped peninsula that extends out into the Mediterranean, as well as a region on the core landmass of the continent. It is bordered by Switzerland and Austria to the north, Slovenia and the Adriatic Sea to the east, France and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, and the Ionian Sea and the Mediterranean to the south. Italy also includes the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. Roman Empire Between the sixth to third centuries BCE, the Italian city of Rome conquered Peninsular Italy; over the next few centuries, this empire spread to dominate the Mediterranean and Western Europe. The Roman Empire would go on to define much of Europes history, leaving a mark on culture and society that outlasted the military and political machinations of its leadership. After the Italian part of the Roman Empire declined and â€Å"fell† in the fifth century (an event no one at the time realized was so significant), Italy was the target of several invasions. The previously united region broke apart into several smaller bodies, including the Papal States, governed by the Catholic Pope. Renaissance and the Kingdom of Italy By the eighth and ninth centuries, a number of powerful and trading-oriented city-states emerged, including Florence, Venice, and Genoa; these were the forces that incubated the Renaissance. Italy and its smaller states also went through stages of foreign domination. These smaller states were the fertile grounds of the Renaissance, which changed Europe massively once more and owed a lot to the competing states trying to outspend each other on glorious art and architecture. Unification and independence movements throughout Italy developed ever stronger voices in the 19th century after Napoleon created the short-lived Kingdom of Italy. A war between Austria and France in 1859 allowed several small states to merge with Piedmont; a tipping point had been reached and the Kingdom of Italy was formed in 1861, growing by 1870—when the Papal States joined—to cover almost all of what we now call Italy. Mussolini and Modern Italy The Kingdom of Italy was subverted when Mussolini took power as a fascist dictator, and although he was initially skeptical of German dictator Adolf Hitler, Mussolini took Italy into World War II rather than risk losing out on what he perceived as a land grab. That choice caused his downfall. Modern Italy is now a democratic republic and has been since the modern constitution came into effect in 1948. This followed a referendum in 1946, which voted to abolish the previous monarchy by 12.7 million to 10.7 million votes. Key Rulers Julius Caesar c. 100 BCE–44 BCE A great general and statesman, Julius Caesar won a civil war to become both sole ruler of the extensive Roman domains and dictator for life, setting in motion a process of transformation that led to the creation of the Roman Empire. He was assassinated by enemies and is arguably the most famous ancient Roman. Giuseppe Garibaldi 1807–1882 After exile in South America, forced upon him because of his role in an attempted republican revolution, Guiseppi Garibaldi commanded forces in several Italian conflicts of the 19th century. He played an important role in Italian unification when he and his volunteer army of â€Å"Redshirts† captured Sicily and Naples and allowed them to join the Kingdom of Italy. Although Garibaldi fell out with the new king, in 1862, he was offered a command in the U.S. Civil War by President Abraham Lincoln. That never occurred because Lincoln wouldnt agree to abolish slavery at that early date. Benito Mussolini 1883–1945 Mussolini became the youngest-ever prime minister of Italy in 1922, using his fascist organization of â€Å"Blackshirts† to propel him to power. He transformed the office into a dictatorship and allied with Hitler’s Germany, but was forced to flee when World War II turned Italy against him. He was captured and executed.

The Nazi Regime - 959 Words

The rise of the Nazi regime in Germany in the early part of the 20th century was an impressive, and nearly unforeseen incident that had long-lasting implications on the rest of the Western world. While the Nazi party was extreme in their ideologies, the circumstances in which they came to power were dire; Germany had been crippled by a massive depression and was being forced to pay reparations through the â€Å"Young Plan† which required Germany to pay the Allied forces â€Å"a series of annual payments extending until 1988†(Bullock, 160). The German people were left without any leadership in a time of disparity, but naturally, a strong leader filled this vacuum. Even though the actions of the Nazi party were extreme and unjustifiable, they needed†¦show more content†¦At the time that Hitler was appointed Chancellor, Alfred Hugenburg said â€Å"‘I’ve just committed the greatest stupidity of my life; I have allied myself with the greatest demagogue in world history’† (Briggs Clavin, 254). Even the politician who appointed Hitler was unaware of how radical his ideology was, and how influential he would be as a leader to the German people. After the Nazi party gained control of the government, there was no way to make them give up this power. The people were at the mercy of the fascist government, and Hitler had no intention of returning to democracy. Hitler believed that â€Å"‘[Germany’s] constitution only marks out the arena of battle, not the goal†¦ once we possess the constitutional power, we will mould the state into the shape we hold suitable’† (Briggs Clavin, 255). If anyone should shoulder the blame for the rise of this extremist party, it should be the failed League of Nations; who had put Germany at their mercy by strangling their economy, and Neville Chamberlin who saw the increasing strength of the German nation under Adolf Hitler, but chose to ignore that Germany was increasing their military strength. 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How PG Tripled Its Innovation Success Rate Free Essays

string(81) " Business School professor Clayton Christensen’s disruptive-innovation theory\." SPOTLIGHT ON PRODUCT INNOVATION Spotlight ARTWORK Josef Schulz, Form #1, 2001 C-print, 120 x 160 cm How PG Tripled Its Innovation Success Rate Inside the company’s new-growth factory by Bruce Brown and Scott D. Anthony 64 Harvard Business Review June 2011 HBR. ORG Bruce Brown is the chief technology o? cer of Procter Gamble. We will write a custom essay sample on How PG Tripled Its Innovation Success Rate or any similar topic only for you Order Now Scott D. Anthony is the managing director of Innosight. June 2011 Harvard Business Review 65 B SPOTLIGHT ON PRODUCT INNOVATION 66 Harvard Business Review June 2011 BACK IN 2000 the prospects for Procter Gamble’s Tide, the biggest brand in the company’s fabric and household care division, seemed limited. The laundry detergent had been around for more than 50 years and still dominated its core markets, but it was no longer growing fast enough to support PG’s needs. A decade later Tide’s revenues have nearly doubled, helping push annual division revenues from $12 billion to almost $24 billion. The brand is surging in emerging markets, and its iconic bull’seye logo is turning up on an array of new products and even new businesses, from instant clothes fresheners to neighborhood dry cleaners. This isn’t accidental. It’s the result of a strategic effort by PG over the past decade to systematize innovation and growth. To understand PG’s strategy, we need to go back more than a century to the sources of its inspiration— Thomas Edison and Henry Ford. In the 1870s Edison created the world’s first industrial research lab, Menlo Park, which gave rise to the technologies behind the modern electric-power and motion-picture industries. Under his inspired direction, the lab churned out ideas; Edison himself ultimately held more than 1,000 patents. Edison of course understood the importance of mass production, but it was his friend Henry Ford who, decades later, perfected it. In 1910 the Ford Motor Company shifted the production of its famous Model T from the Piquette Avenue Plant, in Detroit, to its new Highland Park complex nearby. Although the assembly line wasn’t a novel concept, Highland Park showed what it was capable of: In four years Ford slashed the time required to build a car from more than 12 hours to just 93 minutes. How could PG marry the creativity of Edison’s lab with the speed and reliability of Ford’s factory? The answer its leaders devised, a â€Å"new-growth factory,† is still ramping up. But already it has helped the company strengthen both its core businesses and its ability to capture innovative new-growth opportunities. PG’s efforts to systematize the serendipity that so often sparks new-business creation carry important lessons for leaders faced with shrinking product life cycles and increasing global competition. Laying the Foundation Innovation has long been the backbone of PG’s growth. As chairman, president, and CEO Bob McDonald notes, â€Å"We know from our history that while promotions may win quarters, innovation wins decades. The company spends nearly $2 billion annually on RD—roughly 50% more than its closest competitor, and more than most other competitors combined. Each year it invests at least another $400 million in foundational consumer research to discover opportunities for innovation, conducting some 20,000 studies involving more than 5 million consumers in nearly 100 countries. Odds are that as you’re reading this, PG researchers are in a store somewhere observing shoppers, or even in a consumer’s home. These investments are necessary but not sufficient to achieve PG’s innovation goals. â€Å"People will innovate for financial gain or for competitive advantage, but this can be self-limiting,† McDonald says. â€Å"There needs to be an emotional component as well—a source of inspiration that motivates people. † At PG that inspiration lies in a sense of purpose driven from the top down—the message that each innovation improves people’s lives. At the start of the 2000s only about 15% of PG’s innovations were meeting revenue and profit targets. So the company launched its now well-known Connect + Develop program to bring in outside innovations and built a robust stage-gate process to help manage ideas from inception to launch. (For more on C+D, see Larry Huston and Nabil Sakkab, â€Å"Connect and Develop: Inside Procter Gamble’s New Model for Innovation,† HBR March 2006. ) These actions showed early signs of raising innovation success rates, but it was clear that PG needed more breakthrough innovations. And it had to come up with them as reliably as Ford’s factory had rolled out Model Ts. HOW PG TRIPLED ITS INNOVATION SUCCESS RATE? HBR. ORG Idea in Brief Procter Gamble is a famous innovator. Nonetheless, in the early 2000s only 15% of its innovations were meeting their revenue and pro? t targets. To address this, the company set about building organizational structures to systematize innovation. The resulting new-growth factory includes large newbusiness creation groups, focused project teams, and entrepreneurial guides who help teams rapidly prototype and test new products and business models in the market. The teams follow a step-by-step business development manual and use specialized project and portfolio management tools. Innovation and strategy assessments, once separate, are now combined in revamped executive reviews. PG’s experience suggests six lessons for leaders looking to build new-growth factories: Coordinate the factory with the company’s core businesses, be a vigilant portfolio manager, start small and grow carefully, create tools for gauging new businesses, make sure the right people are doing the right work, and nurture cross-pollination. ithout a further boost to its organic growth capabilities, the company would still have trouble hitting its targets. PG’s leaders recognized that the kind of growth the company was after couldn’t come from simply doing more of the same. It needed to come up with more breakthrough innovations—ones that could create completely new markets. And it needed to do this as reliably as Henry Ford’s Highla nd Park factory had rolled out Model Ts. In 2004 Gil Cloyd, then the chief technology officer, and A. G. Lafley, then the CEO, tasked two 30-year PG veterans, John Leikhim and David Goulait, with designing a new-growth factory whose intellectual underpinnings would derive from the Harvard Business School professor Clayton Christensen’s disruptive-innovation theory. You read "How PG Tripled Its Innovation Success Rate" in category "Papers" The basic concept of disruption—driving growth through new offerings that are simpler, more convenient, easier to access, or more affordable—was hardly foreign to PG. Many of the company’s powerhouse brands, including Tide, Crest, Pampers, and Swiffer, had followed disruptive paths. Leikhim and Goulait, with support from other managers, began by holding a two-day workshop for seven new-product-development teams, guided by facilitators from Innosight (a firm Christensen cofounded). The attendees explored how to shake up embedded ways of thinking that can inhibit disruptive approaches. They formulated creative ways to address critical commercial questions—for example, whether demand would be sufficient to warrant a new-product launch. Learning from the workshop helped spur the development of new products, such as the probiotic supplement Align, and also bolstered existing ones, such as Pampers. In the years that followed, Leikhim and Goulait shored up the factory’s foundation, working with Cloyd and other PG leaders to: Teach senior management and project team members the mind-sets and behaviors that foster disruptive growth. The training, which has changed over time, initially ranged from short modules on topics such as assessing the demand for an early-stage idea to multiday courses in entrepreneurial thinking. Form a group of new-growth-business guides to help teams working on disruptive projects. These experts might, for instance, advise teams to remain small until their project’s key commercial questions, such as whether consumers would habitually use the new product, have been answered. The guides include several entrepreneurs who have succeeded—and, even more important, failed—in starting businesses. Develop organizational structures to drive new growth. For example, in a handful of business About the units the company created small groups focused Spotlight Artist Each month we illustrate primarily on new-growth initiatives. The groups our Spotlight package with (which, like the training, have evolved significantly) a series of works from an acaugmented an existing entity, FutureWorks, whose complished artist. We hope charter is to create new brands and business mod- that the lively and cerebral creations of these photograels. Dedicated teams within the groups conducted phers, painters, and instalmarket research, developed technology, created lation artists will infuse our pages with additional energy business plans, and tested assumptions for specific and intelligence and amplify projects. hat are often complex and Produce a process manual—a step-by-step abstract concepts. This month’s artist is guide to creating new-growth businesses. The Josef Schulz, a German manual includes overarching principles as well as photographer who often detailed procedures and templates to help teams turns his lens on modern industrial constructs and describe opportunities, identify requirements for digitally strips away de? ning success, monitor progress, make go/no-go decisions, details to render moreand more. abstract, universally relRun demonstration projects to showcase the evant images. In the ? rst step I’m a photographer emerging factory’s work. One of these was a line of with his limitations,† he pocket-size products called Swash, which quickly once told an interviewer, refresh clothes: For example, someone who’s in a â€Å"and then an artist with his freedom of decisions. † hurry can give a not-quite-clean shirt a spray rather View more of the artist’s than putting it through the wash. work at josefschulz. de. June 2011 Harvard Business Review 67 SPOTLIGHT ON PRODUCT INNOVATION Sustaining Commercial Commercial innovations use creative marketing, packaging, and promotional approaches to grow existing o? erings. During the 2010 Winter Olympics, PG ran a series of ads celebrating mothers. The campaign covered 18 brands, was viewed repeatedly by hundreds of millions of consumers, and drove $100 million in revenues. PG’s Four Types of Innovation Sustaining innovations bring incremental improvements to existing products: a little more cleaning power to a laundry detergent, a better ? avor to a toothpaste. These provide what PG calls â€Å"er† bene? s—better, easier, cheaper—that are important to sustaining share among current customers and getting new people to try a product. Sharpening the Focus By 2008 PG had a working prototype of the factory, but the company’s innovation portfolio was weighed down by a proliferation of small projects. A. G. Lafley charged Bob McDonald (then the COO) and CTO Bruce Brown (a coauthor of this article) to dramatically increase innovation output by focusing the factory on fewer but bigger initiatives. McDonald and Brown’s team drove three critical improvements. First, rather than strictly separating innovations designed to bolster existing product lines from efforts to create new product lines or business models, PG increased its emphasis on an intermediate category: transformational-sustaining innovations, which deliver major new benefits in existing product categories. Consider the Crest brand, the market leader until the late 1990s, when it was usurped by Colgate. Looking for a comeback, in 2000 PG launched a disruptive innovation, Crest Whitestrips, that made teeth whitening at home affordable and easy. In 2006 it introduced Crest Pro-Health, which squeezes half a dozen benefits into one tube—the toothpaste fights cavities, plaque, tartar, stains, gingivitis, and bad breath. In 2010 it rolled out Crest 3D White, a line of advanced oral care products, including one that whitens teeth in two hours. Such efforts helped Crest retake the lead in many markets. Pro-Health and 3D White were both transformational-sustaining innovations, meant to appeal to current consumers while attracting new ones. These sorts of innovations share an mportant trait with market-creating disruptive innovations: They have a high degree of uncertainty—something the factory is specifically designed to manage. Second, PG strengthened organizational supports for the formation of transformationalsustaining and disruptive businesses. It established several new-business-creation groups, larger in size 68 Harvard Business Review June 2011 and scope than any previous growth-factory team, whose resources a nd management are kept carefully separate from the core business. These groups— dedicated teams led by a general manager—develop ideas that cut across multiple businesses, and also pursue entirely new business opportunities. One group covers all of PG’s beauty and personal care businesses; another covers its household care business (the parent unit of the fabric-and-household and the family-and-baby-care divisions); a third, FutureWorks, focuses largely on enabling different business models (it helped guide PG’s recent partnership with the Indian business Healthpoint Services). The new groups supplement (rather than replace) existing supports such as the Corporate Innovation Fund, which provides seed capital to ideas that might otherwise slip through the cracks. PG also created a specialized team called LearningWorks, which helps plan and execute in-market experiments to learn about purchase decisions and postpurchase use. Third, PG revamped its strategy development and review process. Innovation and strategy assessments had historically been handled separately. Now the CEO, CTO, and CFO explicitly link company, business, and innovation strategies. This integration, coupled with new analyses of such issues as competitive factors that could threaten a given business, has surfaced more opportunities for innovation. The process has also prompted examinations of each unit’s â€Å"production schedule,† or pipeline of growth opportunities, to ensure that it’s robust enough to deliver against growth goals for the next seven to 10 years. Evaluations are made of individual business units (feminine care, for example) as well as broad sectors (household care). This revised approach calls for each business unit to determine the mix of innovation types it needs to deliver the required growth. HOW PG TRIPLED ITS INNOVATION SUCCESS RATE? HBR. ORG Transformational-Sustaining Transformational-sustaining innovations reframe existing categories. They typically bring order-of-magnitude improvements and fundamental changes to a business and often lead to breakthroughs in market share, pro? t levels, and consumer acceptance. In 2009 PG introduced the wrinkle-reducing cream Olay Pro-X. Launching a $40-a-bottle product in the depths of a recession might seem a questionable strategy. But PG went ahead because it considered the product a transformational-sustaining innovation—clinically proven to be as e? ective as its much more expensive prescription counterparts, and superior to the company’s other antiaging o? erings. The cream and related products generated ? rst-year sales of $50 million in U. S. food retailers and drugstores alone. Disruptive Disruptive innovations represent newto-the-world business opportunities. A company enters entirely new businesses with radically new o? erings, as PG did with Swi? er and Febreze. Running the Factory Let’s return now to Tide, whose dramatic growth highlights the potential of PG’s approach. Over the past decade the brand has launched numerous products and product-line extensions, carved new paths in emerging markets, and tested a promising new business model. If you had looked for Tide in a U. S. supermarket 10 years ago, you would have found, for the most part, ordinary bottles and boxes of detergent. Now you’ll see the Tide name on dozens of products, all with different scents and capabilities. For example, in 2009 PG introduced a line of laundry additives called Tide Stain Release. Within a year, building on 26 patents, it incorporated these additives into a sible to 70% of Indian consumers and has helped to significantly increase Tide’s share in India. More radically, Swash moved the Tide brand out of the laundry room. The line has clear disruptive characteristics: Swash products don’t clean as thoroughly as laundry detergents or remove wrinkles as effectively as professional pressing. But because they’re quick and easy to use, they offer â€Å"good enough† occasional alternatives between washes. Swash took an unconventional path to commercialization. When the products were first sold, in a store near PG’s headquarters in Ohio, they carried a different brand name and had no apparent connection to Tide. After that experiment, PG opened a â€Å"pop up† Swash store at The Ohio State University. Both Tide Dry Cleaners is a factory innovation that represents an entirely new business model. new detergent, Tide with Acti-Lift—the first major redesign of Tide’s liquid laundry detergent in a decade. The product’s launch drove immediate marketshare growth of the Tide brand in the United States. PG has also customized formulations for emerging markets. Ethnographic research showed that about 80% of consumers in India wash their clothes by hand. They had to choose between detergents that were relatively gentle on the skin but not very good at actually cleaning clothes, and more-potent but harsher agents. With the problem clearly identified, in 2009 a team came up with Tide Naturals, which cleaned well without causing irritation. Mindful of the need in emerging markets to provide greater benefit at lower cost—â€Å"more for less†Ã¢â‚¬â€PG priced Tide Naturals 30% below comparably effective but harsher products. This made the Tide brand accestests helped the company understand how consumers would buy and use the products, which PG then began selling exclusively through Amazon and other online channels. In early 2011 the company ramped down its promotion of Swash, although learning from the effort will inform its work on other disruptive ideas in the clothes-refreshing space. Whereas Swash was a new product line, Tide Dry Cleaners represents an entirely new business model. It started when a team began exploring ways to disrupt the dry-cleaning market, using proprietary technologies and a unique store design grounded in insights about consumers’ frustrations with existing options. Many cleaning establishments are dingy, unfriendly places. Customers have to park, walk, and wait. Often the cleaners’ hours are inconvenient. PG’s alternative: bright, boldly colored cleaners June 2011 Harvard Business Review 69 SPOTLIGHT ON PRODUCT INNOVATION The Factory’s Consumer Research at Work In October 2010 PG launched the Gillette Guard razor in India, a transformational-sustaining innovation whose strategic intent was simple: to provide a cheaper and e? ective alternative for the hundreds of millions of Indians who use double-edged razors. The company’s researchers spent thousands of hours in the market to understand these consumers’ needs. They gained important insights by observing men in rural areas who, lacking indoor plumbing, typically shave outdoors using little or no water—and don’t shave every day. The single-blade Gillette Guard was thus designed to clean easily, with minimal water, and to manage longer stubble. The initial retail price was 15 rupees (33 cents), with re? ll cartridges for ? ve rupees (11 cents). Early tests showed that consumers preferred the new product to double-edged razors by a six-to-one margin. Its breakthrough performance and a? ordability position it for rapid growth. featuring specialized treatments, drive-through windows, and 24-hour storage lockers to facilitate after-hours drop-off and pickup. Using the new-growth factory’s process manual, the development team identified key assumptions about the proposed dry cleaners. For example, could the business model generate enough returns to attract store owners willing to pay up to $1 million for franchise rights? In 2009 PG’s guides helped the team open three pilots in Kansas City to try to find out. That year PG also formed Agile Pursuits Franchising, a subsidiary to oversee such efforts, and transferred ownership of the dry-cleaning venture to FutureWorks, whose main mission is to pursue new business models that lie outside PG’s established systems. It remains to be seen how Tide Dry Cleaners will fare, but one promising sign came in 2010, when Andrew Cherng, the founder of the Panda Restaurant Group, announced plans to open 150 franchises in four years. He told BusinessWeek, â€Å"I wasn’t around when McDonald’s was taking franchisees, [but] I’m not going to miss this one. † To ensure strategic cohesion and smart resource allocation, Tide’s innovation efforts have been closely coordinated through regular dialogues among several leaders—CEO McDonald, CTO Brown, the vice-chair of the household business unit, and the president of the fabric care division. They’ve also been the focus of discussions at Corporate Innovation Fund meetings and similar reviews. This isn’t just the methodical pursuit of a single innovation. It’s part of a steady stream of ideas in development—a factory humming with work. and learning, and personally engage. Our journey at PG suggests six lessons for leaders looking to create new-growth factories. 1. Closely coordinate the factory and the core business. Leaders sometimes see efforts to foster new growth as completely distinct from efforts to bolster the core; indeed, many in the innovation community have argued as much for years. Our experience indicates the opposite. First, new-growth efforts depend on a healthy core business. A healthy core produces a cash flow that can be invested in new growth. And we’ve all known times when an ailing core has demanded management’s full attention; a healthy core frees leaders to think about more-expansive growth initiatives. Second, a core business is rich with capabilities that can support new-growth efforts. Consider PG’s excellent relationships with major retailers. Those relationships are a powerful, hard-to-replicate asset that helps the factory expedite new-growth initiatives. Swiffer wouldn’t be Swiffer without them. Third, some of the tools for managing core efforts—particularly those that track a project’s progress—are also useful for managing new-growth efforts. And finally, the factory’s rapid-learning approach often yields insights that can strengthen existing product lines. One of the project teams at the 2004 workshop was seeking to spur conversion in emerging markets from cloth to disposable diapers. Subsequent in-market tests yielded a critical discovery: Babies who wore disposable diapers fell asleep 30% faster and slept 30 minutes longer than babies wearing cloth diapers—an obvious benefit for infants (and their parents). Advertising campaigns touting this advantage helped make Pampers the number one brand in several emerging markets. 2. Promote a portfolio mind-set. PG communicates to both internal and external stakeholders that it is building a varied portfolio of innovation Lessons for Leaders Efforts to build a new-growth factory in any company will fail unless senior managers create the right organizational structures, provide the proper resources, allow sufficient time for experimentation 70 Harvard Business Review June 2011 HOW PG TRIPLED ITS INNOVATION SUCCESS RATE? HBR. ORG approaches, ranging from sustaining to disruptive ones. See the sidebar â€Å"PG’s Four Types of Innovation. †) It uses a set of master-planning tools to match the pace of innovation to the overall needs of the business. It also deploys portfolio-optimization tools that help managers identify and kill the least-promising programs and nurture the best bets. These tools create projections for every active idea, including estimates of the financial potential and the human and capital investments that will be required. Some ideas are evaluated with classic net-present-value calculations, others with a risk-adjusted real-option approach, and still others with more-qualitative criteria. Although the tools assemble a rank-ordered list of projects, PG’s portfolio management isn’t, at its core, a mechanical exercise; it’s a dialogue about resource allocation and business-growth building blocks. Numerical input informs but doesn’t dictate decisions. A portfolio approach has several benefits. First, it sets up the expectation that different projects will be managed, resourced, and measured in different ways, just as an investor would use different criteria to evaluate an equity investment and a real estate one. Second, because the portfolio consists largely of sustaining and transformational-sustaining efforts, seeing it as a whole highlights the critical importance of these activities, which protect and extend legitimate disagreement about the best way to organize for new growth. Whereas we believe in a factory with relatively strong ties to the core, some advocate a â€Å"skunkworks† organization. Others argue for â€Å"distinct but linked† organizations under an â€Å"ambidextrous† leader; still others recommend mirroring the structure of a venture capital firm. (PG’s factory uses several organizational approaches. Treating capability development itself as a new-growth innovation lets companies try different approaches and learn what works best for them. A staged approach serves another important purpose: It’s a built-in reminder that a new-growth factory is not a quick fix. The factory won’t provide a sudden boost to next quarter’s result s, nor can it instantly rein in an out-of-control core business that’s veering from crisis to crisis. GILLETTE GUARD After thousands of hours of research in the ? eld, PG learned that a single-blade razor was a cheaper and e? ective alternative to double-edged razors for many consumers in India. CREST 3D WHITE Usurped by Colgate in the late 1990s, Crest has regained the lead in many markets owing to its introduction of several innovative oral care products, including ones that make teeth whitening at home a? ordable and easy. 4. Create new tools for gauging new businesses. Anticipated and nascent markets are notoriously hard to analyze. Detailed follow-up with one of the project teams that attended the pilot workshop showed PG that it needed new tools for this purpose. PG now conducts â€Å"transaction learning experiments,† or TLEs, in which a team â€Å"makes a little and sells a little,† thus letting consumers vote with their wallets. Teams have sold small amounts of products online, at mall kiosks, in pop-up stores, and at amusement parks—even in the company store PG now conducts â€Å"transaction learning experiments,† which let consumers vote with their wallets. core businesses. Finally, a portfolio approach helps reinforce the message that any project, particularly a disruptive one, may carry substantial risk and might not deliver commercial results—and that’s fine, as long as the portfolio accounts for the risk. 3. Start small and grow carefully. Remember how the new-growth factory began: with a simple two-day workshop. It then expanded to small-scale pilots in several business units before becoming a companywide initiative. Staged investment allows for early, rapid revision—before lines scribbled on a hypothetical organizational chart are engraved in stone. It also provides for targeted experimentation. For example, there is and outside company cafeterias. PG devised a venture capital approach to testing the market for Align, its probiotic supplement, providing seed capital for a controlled pilot. The company has also tested entire business models—recall the Kansas City pilots of Tide Dry Cleaners. 5. Make sure you have the right people doing the right work. Building the factory forced PG to change the way it staffed certain teams. At any given time the company has hundreds of teams working on various innovation efforts. In the past, most teams consisted mainly of part-time members—employees who had other responsibilities pulling at them. But disruptive and transformational-sustaining efforts June 2011 Harvard Business Review 71 SPOTLIGHT ON PRODUCT INNOVATION HBR. ORG CONNECT WITH THE AUTHORS Do you have questions or comments about this article? The authors will respond to reader feedback at hbr. org. TIDE DRY CLEANERS Still in an early stage, this innovation arose in part from insights about consumers’ frustrations with the dinginess and inconvenience of most existing drycleaning establishments. require undivided attention. (As the old saying goes, nine women can’t make a baby in a month. ) There need to be people who wake up each day and go to sleep each night obsessing about the new business. New-growth teams also need to be small and nimble, and they should include seasoned members. PG found that big teams often bog down because they pursue too many ideas at once, whereas small teams are better able to quickly focus on the mostpromising initiatives. Having several members with substantial innovation experience helps teams confidently make sound judgment calls when data are inconclusive or absent. Finally, building a factory requires a substantial investment in widespread, ongoing training. Changing mind-sets begins, literally, with teaching a new language. Key terms such as â€Å"disruptive innovation,† â€Å"job to be done,† â€Å"business model,† and â€Å"critical assumptions† must be clearly and consistently defined. PG reinforces key innovation concepts both at large meetings and at smaller, focused workshops, and in 2007 it established a â€Å"disruptive innovation college. People working on new-growth projects can choose from more than a dozen courses, ranging from basic innovation language to designing and executing a TLE, sketching out a business model, staffing a new-growth team, and identifying a job to be done. 6. Encourage intersections. Successful innovation requires rich cross-pollinat ion both inside and outside the organization. PG’s Connect + Develop program is part of a larger effort to intersect with other disciplines and gain new perspectives. Over the past few years PG has: †¢ Shared people with noncompeting companies. In 2008 PG and Google swapped two dozen employees for a few weeks. PG wanted greater exposure to online models; Google was interested in learning more about how to build brands. †¢ Engaged even more outside innovators. In 2010 PG refreshed its C+D goals. It aims to become the partner of choice for innovation collaboration, and to triple C+D’s contribution to PG’s innovation development (which would mean deriving $3 billion of the company’s annual sales growth from outside innovators). It has expanded the program to forge additional connections with government labs, universities, small and medium-sized entrepreneurs, consortia, and venture capital firms. †¢ Brought in outside talent. PG has traditionally promoted from within. But it recognized that total reliance on this approach could stunt its ability to create new-growth businesses. So it began bringing in high-level people to address needs beyond its core capabilities, as when it hired an outsider to run Agile Pursuits Franchising. In that one stroke, it acquired expertise in franchise-based business models that would have taken years to build organically. SOME THINK it’s foolish for large companies to even attempt to create innovative-growth businesses. They maintain that organizations should just outsource innovation, by acquiring promising start-ups. But PG’s efforts appear to be working. Recall that in 2000 only 15% of its innovation efforts met profit and revenue targets. Today the figure is 50%. The past fiscal year was one of the most productive innovation years in the company’s history, and the company’s three- and five-year innovation portfolios are sufficient to deliver against their growth objectives. Projections suggest that the typical initiative in 2014 and 2015 will have nearly twice the revenue of today’s initiatives. That’s a sixfold increase in output without any significant increase in inputs. Our experience tells us that although individual creativity can be unpredictable and uncontrollable, collective creativity can be managed. Although the next Tide or Crest innovation might stumble, the factory’s methodical approach should bring many more innovations successfully to market. The factory process can create sustainable sources of revenue growth—no matter how big a company becomes. HBR Reprint R1106C At PG’s â€Å"disruptive innovation college,† people working on new-growth projects can choose from more than a dozen courses. 72 Harvard Business Review June 2011 Harvard Business Review Notice of Use Restrictions, May 2009 Harvard Business Review and Harvard Business Publishing Newsletter content on EBSCOhost is licensed for the private individual use of authorized EBSCOhost users. It is not intended for use as assigned course material in academic institutions nor as corporate learning or training materials in businesses. Academic licensees may not use this content in electronic reserves, electronic course packs, persistent linking from syllabi or by any other means of incorporating the content into course resources. Business licensees may not host this content on learning management systems or use persistent linking or other means to incorporate the content into learning management systems. Harvard Business Publishing will be pleased to grant permission to make this content available through such means. For rates and permission, contact permissions@harvardbusiness. org. How to cite How PG Tripled Its Innovation Success Rate, Papers

Legalization of marijuana in the U.S free essay sample

Marijuana has been use ford thousands of years by people from different culture as a medicine. Millions of people use marijuana in the U. S. and is increasing every year. Marijuana is a controlled substance that should be legalized for medical use. Marijuana is a plant that has been by people from all over the world, and marijuana should not be classified as an illegal drug. The effects of marijuana, the politics view on marijuana, the ways that marijuana could be used in the medical field, and the future of legalized marijuana. Marijuana is defined by http://www. dictionary. com/ â€Å"as a strong smelling plant from whose dried leaves a number of euphoria causing and hallucinogenic drugs. † Marijuana is a controlled substance that should be legalized for recreational use. Marijuana is a plant that has been by people from all over the world, and most part of society classified marijuana as an illegal drug. Also, marijuana is commonly known like pot, grass, weed, dope, sees, skunk, Mary Jane, and Cannabis Sativa. Marijuana is not a drug, and shouldn’t be in our judicial system as an illegal drug. The National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIC) â€Å"define the immediate effects after taking marijuana include rapid heart beat, disorientation, lack of physical coordination, often followed by depression or sleepiness. Some users suffer panic attacks or anxiety. † However, it has never led to a single case of human death from overdose in its entire history. This is a sharp contrast to the high mortality rate of other drug like cocaine. Plus, the side effects of marijuana are not bad at all compare to Codeine one of the most popular pain medications used in the U.S. The official website of drugs. com describe the side effects of Codeine as: â€Å"slow heart rate, weak pulse, fainting, shallow breathing; feeling like you might pass out; confusion, agitation, hallucinations, unusual thoughts or behavior; feelings of extreme happiness or sadness; seizure. Marijuana was widely used by some of the world’s earliest civilizations. Cannabis Now Magazine state that â€Å"history documents show that the fiber-rich cannabis plant was used to produce rope and woven fabrics around 7000 B. C. in Central and South Asia. † Plus, marijuana is in the Chinese manuscripts dating back to 2700 B. C. this plant was used as medicine. Marijuana is define by http://www. dictionary. com as a strong smelling plant from whose dried leaves a number of euphoria causing and hallucinogenic drugs are prepared. Marijuana has many names like ganja, pot, grass, weed, dope, sees, sens, skunk, Mary Jane, and Cannabis Sativa. Cannabis Now Magazine publish on the article History of Marijuana in America that â€Å"After being used by half of the world for nearly 8,000 years, Marijuana reached North America with Christopher Columbus in 1492 A.D. This is a plant that has been grown for fiber and as a source of medicine all those years. But the plant didn’t become popular until the early 20th century. Since marijuana become popular this plant has become controversial because of people misunderstandings marijuana. All of the soon this recreational plant became considered as harmful as cocaine or heroin. However, Cannabis Now Team added that â€Å"the United States Pharmacopeia had marijuana on its list of pharmaceuticals from 1850 until 1942. Marijuana was introduced in America after the Spanish-American War by Mexican-Americans who work on large farms in American fields. These immigrants cultivated marijuana, which they brought with them from Mexico and they enjoyed smoking marijuana for recreational purposes. † Marijuana view by part of society as drug. On the other hand, a lot of people believe that marijuana is not a drug, and shouldn’t be in our judicial system as an illegal drug. the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIC) define â€Å"Marijuana is a dry, shredded green and brown mix of leaves, flowers, stems, and seeds from the hemp plant Cannabis sativa. And the immediate effects after taking marijuana include rapid heartbeat, disorientation, lack of physical coordination, often followed by depression or sleepiness. Some users suffer panic attacks or anxiety. † However, it has never led to a single case of human death from overdose in its entire history. This is a sharp contrast to the high mortality rate of other drug like cocaine. Remember the side effect of marijuana are not bad at all compare to Codeine one of the most popular pain medication used in the U. S. I went into the official website of drugs. And I looked up the side effects of Codeine are: â€Å"slow heart rate, weak pulse, fainting, shallow breathing; feeling like you might pass out; confusion, agitation, hallucinations, unusual thoughts or behavior; feelings of extreme happiness or sadness; seizure (convulsions); Other side effects including withdrawal symptoms after either abrupt cessation or fast tapering of narcotic analgesics have been reported. These withdrawal symptoms have included agitation, restlessness, anxiety, insomnia, tremor, abdominal cramps, blurred vision, vomiting, and sweating  or problems with urination. Nonetheless, the use and cultivation of the cannabis plant was made illegal because of some antidrug advocates. Marijuana in this age is really controversial issue. Especially in politics this topic is on flame. For example; Washington State consider and pass a law calls I-502 to legalize tax and regulate marijuana. In the article â€Å"The Politics of Pot Legalization† Connor Guy expressed that â€Å"This would generate an estimated of $560 million in additional revenue per year. Similarly to the California’s Proposition 19 in 2010 that failed. † However, dispensary owners and medical marijuana lawyers did not support this law because they benefit from the system. The public support for I-502 was divided because of the legal penalties of driving under the influent of marijuana. They argue there is no an effective way of known if the person under the influent because marijuana can remain in the blood. Personally, I believe that the legalization in the use of marijuana in Washington open a door to discuss the possibility to change the legal statues of marijuana in the country. But, the politics have to articulate more in how the going to regulate the drug, and make more save for the public by giving hard sanction to the driver who drive under the influent of marijuana. The government will benefit on the legalization of marijuana by taxing stables places where marijuana can be properly sale and distribute. I think that politic for once can have a series discussion about legalizing marijuana. The legal state of marijuana is affecting millions of consumer in the United States that need this drug to go cope with medical, mental, and physical problem they have. Marijuana has been part of humanitys medicine since the history started to be recorded by people. The negative consequences of marijuana prohibition categories it as a â€Å"dangerous drug† because heavy marijuana users generally report lower life satisfaction, poorer mental and physical health, relationship problems, and less academic and career success compared to their peers who came from similar backgrounds. None of this problem is as tragic as the denial of medicinal cannabis to the tens of thousands of patients who could benefit from its therapeutic use to the sick and dying that need this drug. NIDAs studies show that â€Å"the benefits of using medical marijuana are grader than any smoking related harms that some patient may have. † For example, after conducting a nearly two-year review of the medical literature, investigators at the National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine affirmed: Scientific data indicate the potential therapeutic value of cannabinoid drugs for pain relief, control of nausea and vomiting, and appetite stimulation. Except for the harms associated with smoking, the adverse effects of marijuana use are within the range tolerated for other medications. † The future of medical marijuana is uncertain. Society is change and the view of how society see this drug will change. I believe that in my life time marijuana will become legal again. Marijuana was a legal substance during the beginning of the twentieth century, and marijuana could legal again by this century. Also, many countries in the world like Brazil, Portugal, and the Netherlands have legalized marijuana. The U. S. is starting fallow those countries in legalizing marijuana. Voters in sixteen states: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Delaware, Hawaii, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont and Washington, and the District of Columbia have approved initiatives excusing patients who use marijuana under a physicians supervision. But people opposite the legalization marijuana are unpleased with the decision, they argue by making the drug legal more people may consume the drug. But this drug is as addicted as taking Tylenol for the paint. The legalization affect all society. However the prohibition of marijuana has not helped in the reduction of its consumption. In many cases, the consumption and production of marijuana has become wild, and out of control, even after it has been prohibited. As such, the drug become attractive to people. Also, some people argue that legalization of marijuana will help in allowing it to be consumed in a responsible way. â€Å"The US government has tried to use criminal penalties to reduce consumption of marijuana for over 75 years in vain. Today, the number of people consuming marijuana is estimated to be more than 25 million in the US. In fact, it is alleged that the largest cash crop in the US is cannabis sativa. † for that reason ridiculous to argue that prohibition of marijuana is a successful policy. Instead we should take a look to other society like some European countries had make laws less strict or repealed their laws, which were the drug become legal for recreational use. For example; Commander Brain Paddock in a neighborhood of London called Brixton, did a little experiment. â€Å"Over a six month period, he instructed his officers to warn those caught with small amounts of marijuana rather than arrest them. At the end of those six months, Scotland Yard issued a report that stated more than 2500 hours of manpower was saved by giving warnings (Katz, 2002). Not making arrests meant not spending valuable time transporting prisoners and filling out paper work, not to mention court time and costs saved prosecuting those arrested. That time could then be spent on investigating and enforcing other more serious criminal activities. † Legalization of marijuana may bring different social impacts in communities where it is legalized. For instance, it may unavoidably create a new industry in a challenging economy. Socially, people argue that legalization of marijuana may create good connection among the members of a given society. The effect of the drug may make conflicts with other members of the society due to the relaxing effect of marijuana (LdySnows Blog). Therefore, the society will benefit enrollment of marijuana smokers would boost the local economy as well. Also the drug may have impact negatively on the members of the society. In conclusion, I cannot argue which what might other people think, might say or think about medical marijuana. But, I believe the only solution is to regulated marijuana in market this way this drug can be control, and probably reduce the availability as well as the interest teens in Marijuana. On the street there are no ID checks, no regulation, and we can keep letting this drug be used with no control. In dispensaries medical marijuana could be manage and distribute under the control of the federal government. Knowing the history of the plant and the effect of smoking, or taking in an oral way may help people to have a better about why people want this drug to be legalize. Also, old politic has been one of the biggest challenge to overcome. Never less, the view of this drug need to change because of the medical aspect that this drug and the huge benefits this drug provide people that are in intensive pain. The future of this medical marijuana is a paradox. Because is better to leave it to the criminal justice system to keep enforcing the prohibition, or would we be better off with some form of controlled legalization or regulated market. The cost to our government by keeping this drug as illegal drug is very extensive. The only thing that sentence is leaving people with criminal records, be send to prisons, and the cost billions of dollars used to fight it. How exactly has criminalization of a plant benefited our society?

4 Facts About Native American Reservations

4 Facts About Native American Reservations The term Indian reservation refers to the ancestral territory still occupied by a Native American nation. While there are approximately 565 federally recognized tribes in the U.S., there are only about 326 reservations. This means that almost one-third of all currently federally recognized tribes have lost their land bases as a result of colonization. There were well over 1,000 tribes in existence prior to the formation of the U.S., but many faced extinction due to foreign diseases or were simply not politically recognized by the U.S. Initial Formation Contrary to popular opinion, reservations are not lands given to Indians by the United States government. Quite the opposite is true; land was given to the U.S. by the tribes through treaties. What are now reservations is the land retained by the tribes after the treaty-based land cessions (not to mention other mechanisms by which the U.S. seized Indian lands without consent). Indian reservations are created in one of three ways: By treaty, by executive order of the president, or by an act of Congress. Land in Trust Based on federal Indian law, Indian reservations are lands held in trust for tribes by the federal government. This problematically means that the tribes technically do not own title to their own lands, but the trust relationship between tribes and the U.S. dictates that the U.S. has a fiduciary responsibility to administer and manage the lands and resources to the best advantage of the tribes. Historically, the U.S. has failed miserably in its management responsibilities. Federal policies have led to massive land loss and gross negligence in resource extraction on reservation lands. For example, uranium mining in the southwest has led to dramatically increased levels of cancer in the Navajo Nation and other Pueblo tribes. The mismanagement of trust lands has also resulted in the largest class-action lawsuit in U.S. history known as the Cobell case; it was settled after 15 years of litigation by the Obama Administration. Socioeconomic Realities Generations of lawmakers have recognized the failures of federal Indian policy. These policies have consistently resulted in the highest levels of poverty and other negative social indicators compared to all other American populations, including substance abuse, mortality rates, education, and others. Modern policies and laws have sought to promote independence and economic development on the reservations. One such law- the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988- recognizes the rights of Native Americans to operate casinos on their lands. While gaming has produced an overall positive economic effect in Indian country, very few have realized significant wealth as a result of casinos. Cultural Preservation Among the outcomes of disastrous federal policies is the fact that most Native Americans no longer live on reservations. Its true that reservation life is very difficult in some ways, but most Native Americans that can trace their ancestry to a particular reservation tend to think of it as home. Native Americans are place-based people; their cultures are reflective of their relationship to the land and their continuity on it, even when they have endured displacement and relocation. Reservations are centers of cultural preservation and revitalization. Even though the process of colonization has resulted in much loss of culture, much is still retained as Native Americans have adapted to modern life. Reservations are places where traditional languages are still spoken, where traditional arts and crafts are still created, where ancient dances and ceremonies are still performed, and where origin stories are still told. They are in a sense the heart of America-a connection to a time and place that reminds us how young America really is.

buy custom Restoration of Campus Sanity essay

buy custom Restoration of Campus Sanity essay Emerging trends in our institutions of higher learning have lately elicited mixed reactions. Parents, teachers, Non-governmental organizations, the government itself and other stakeholders have remained bewildered by the current state of events in these institutions. What really happened to these institutions? What additional measures need to be put in place to achieve campus sanity? These are some of the questions we ought to ask ourselves if we need make some progress to finding long term solutions. The road towards achieving campus sanity is long and requires commitment from all the stakeholders to walk on successfully. Effort should be seen from all corners: lecturers, students, the government, parents, Non-governmental organizations, educationists and the general public. We need not play blame games if we intend to achieve this mission. Attention needs to be focused on the people that are downplaying the mission to achieve campus sanity. Students need to start evaluating themselves on a personal basis. They should be disciplined and focus on key issues regarding their personal development. They need to understand the reason why they are in school and work towards becoming better. It is paramount that they also understand the future is in their hands and that any deviation from the norm would play a big role in making the country disillusioned and wanting in terms of availability of ready labor. Enough said, students should engage more on profitable activities, sports, debating, politics other just sit down anguishing ovr what they call their rights. They should learn effective ways of communicating their views other than opting on leading strikes, vandalizing property and throwing stones. They need to start getting closer to the administration part so that they can communicate anything unusual. Campus administrators and teachers also need to be keen in the process of their delivery. They should opt for more favorable tactics other than dictatorial and ensure Students are satisfied. Counseling sessions are important and should be made readily available to students. In addition, they should seek to get closer to their students. This will inform them of any issues that need to be addressed before its too late. Of importance too is for lecturers to learn to be fair in their dealings such that students will not see them as a hindrance to their academic progress. On the other hand, morality should be upheld such that cases of relationships are not reported between teachers and students. In the past, administrators have often being agents of impunity overindulging in curtailing the freedom of students. Students then result to resistance claiming they want their freedom back. This affects the learning process a great deal. Disciplinary measures that are sound and rational should be initialized in these institutions. It is important that students be corrected whenever deviations are noted. Such may include suspensions and expulsions though it should be done after careful evaluation. In addition, they need to be told why they were ddisciplined and advised to correct this in the future. This will promote cordial relations even after the punishments have been given. Parents are not to be left behind in this fight. They ought to take up their as parents, guardians and disciplinarians seriously if we are to win this race. It has been common in the past for parents to abdicate their roles assuming other stake holders will support. This has had disastrous effects on the behavior of students with most of them remaining unguided. Some have ended in drugs and substance abuse, crime and other malpractices. Parents are to blame for their negligence. The government also should help in rationalizing the situation. It is important that it provides an enabling environment to these institutions. It should organize workshops for students and employ qualified counselors for the job. This will see to it that the situation finally improves parents, guardians and disciplinarians seriously if we are to win this race. It has been common in the past for parents to abdicate their roles assuming other stake holders will support. This has had disastrous effects on the behavior of students with most of them remaining unguided. Some have ended in drugs and substance abuse, crime and other malpractices. The parents are to blame for their negligence. The government also should help in rationalizing the situation. It is important that it provides an enabling environment to these institutions. It should organize workshops for students and employ qualified counselors for the job. This will see to it that the situation finally improves. Buy custom Restoration of Campus Sanity essay

Friedman's statement (published by The New York Times Magazine in Essay

Friedman's statement (published by The New York Times Magazine in 1970) suggests that economic and social objectives are separ - Essay Example CSR has however remained a debatable topic, as regards actual role played by corporation within societies, as firms have attempted to minimise their CSR roles or devised ways to use social responsibility as another method (a branding tool) for increasing their profits. Milton Friedman has been a major proponent of anti CSR movement, and has written articles, which are considered as seminal pieces of work against CSR and corporations that promote CSR. This is evident in his 1970 article, â€Å"The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits,† published by The New York Times Magazine in 1970, where he claimed â€Å"businessmen who talk this way are unwitting puppets of the intellectual forces that have been undermining the basis of a free society these past decades† (Friedman, 1970: 1). He further suggested that social and economic goals are distinctly different entities for any corporation and the two cannot work hand in hand. In this context, the articl e will explore Friedman’s ideas in the light of different views about the nature of the corporation, as discussed by Klonoski’s (1991) in his article, â€Å"Foundational Considerations in the Corporate Social Responsibility Debate.† The researcher’s stand that CSR is an important part of modern business strategy will be illustrated with examples from scholarly articles and real life instances. Discussion There is a great deal of significance associated with the concept of CSR, as conducting business is a process selected by society for manufacture and dissemination of products and services. Initially, it was felt that any business firm could ful?l its social obligations by merely sustaining in the competitive market and optimizing their pro?ts. The business firms could use all social and natural resources for making profits simply by adhering to the basic governmental rules imposed for controlling malpractices. The existing market system created a framewo rk essential for monitoring and controlling the system, while pro?ts guaranteed efficiency and incentives. Under this system, self-interest and ethics (workplace and individual) formed to be main guiding principles for a corporation’s operations. Therefore, by generating pro?ts, firms helped in growth and development of a country’s economic system that in turn created a scope for increased employment and income generation for more people (Beck, 1992). Therefore, CSR was limited to improving the bottom line, and it was generally acknowledged that a business firm would fail to survive without making pro?ts; hence, the question of assuming a social role was never raised. It was only recently experts opined that besides having profit-making goals (or economic objectives), corporations must work towards addressing certain public expectations, that is, aim at social welfare. Owing to this, the very concept of social responsibility associated with pro?t optimization underwent changes, and social and economic goals both received equal attention. Buchholz (1991), while defining CSR, distinguished ?ve main elements that delineate the term. These are: Business firms have obligations that go beyond manufacturing products and providing services at a financial gain; These obligations help to resolve significant social issues, especially ones created by the firms themselves; The impact from the operational

Investigating a strategic problem (Proposal) Research Proposal

Investigating a strategic problem ( ) - Research Proposal Example The first problem concerns the license bid. The Omani government, through its regulator, TRA announced a tender for mobile license. The license biding process was highly competitive, with approximately 28 international firms bidding for the license (Birnik and Cormack 2010, p. 405). In addition to the problem of acquiring the license, the firm has to attract talent. Even though Nawras has the resources to launch its operations, it faces the problem of recruiting the right people for permanent employment. Most importantly, the firm has to develop effective strategies for competing with Omantel that has already established its presence in the country. Omantel has already acquired a customer base, developed its infrastructure and created networks with influential people. A multi-dimensional approach targeting organizational objectives and situational factors will address the problems. It will allow the organization’s administrators to approach the license problem using a collaborative strategy. Consequently, it will create meaningful relationships to address the issue. The challenges in recruiting meaningful talent can be addressed through modern recruitment processes that use social media. In addition, Omantel’s influence can be countered through dynamic pricing techniques and creating flexible services. Nawras Telecommunications is a relatively new company in Omani. Its operations face a number of strategic problems given the fact that it is yet to develop its infrastructure or acquire an efficient human resources. The challenges are compounded because it operates in a country that has underdeveloped its telecommunication regulatory and legal

Analyse the author's implicit and meaning of the text. Comment on the Assignment

Analyse the author's implicit and meaning of the text. Comment on the way He uses language to make his point and whether or not is an appropriate way of starting his view - Assignment Example He believes that he belongs to no community as well as all of us. Therefore, nobody should abide by the word community. He suggests that even one should be cautious even being called a family. He suggests that media uses the word communities a lot and even in a terrorist act and other criminal issues. This makes people be in fear of the communities they live, and they need re-assurance. He further presents a man in his street that runs a â€Å"community association." Nobody is joining this association. The man became the sole member and the leader of the association, and he purport to represent them. This after being advised that it is easy to negotiate with self-appointed leader than with many persons with their distinct concerns. He has a view that it is fictions when people speak about the faith, local and ethnic communities. He argues that the reason of using communities is to diminish the individuality. This means that people are not independent but are under a bracket termed as community. This easily allows those in power to rule over or achieve their self-interest through the community. He argues that the government has categorized its people by type just as Marxism did by class. He suggests this is easily achieved through the community, but it is wrong. He cites the example of union leaders who are minority negotiating the salaries of the employees as one-way leaders achieve their self-interests. Clubs and universities in Briton is part of the large part of trying to pass their bureaucratic leadership and diminish the British spirit individualism. He refers to George Orwell and Aldous writings that demonstrate inhumanities of societies according to the imposed templates on them. He further suggests that the government is curtailing liberty through their chants of free people as a unit in a collective communal way. All this is for their leadership advantage and quest for power. He notes the

Coca-Cola and PepsiCo in India: A Question of Multinational Corporation

Coca-Cola and PepsiCo in India: A Question of Multinational Corporation Coca-Cola and PepsiCo are the two largest corporations producing soft-drinks and bottled water today, therefore having a huge impact on people all around the world. One country in particular that has been greatly affected by these two corporations is India. Raman (2007) reported that both Coca-Cola and PepsiCo were initially attracted to India for production due to its expanding middle-class between the end of the 1980s and early 1990s as well as the extremely cheap supply of water (p. 107). Ironically, water is what ultimately caused the start of problems within India (in Kerala specifically) which came into view around 2001. The idea of water being a human right and the power that multinational corporations hold in foreign countries of the South became huge concerns. Canadians and many others around the world use these products daily, therefore making this very relevant to our daily lives. This paper will therefore argue that Coca-Cola and PepsiCo, although thought to help India ec onomically, has rather only caused many internal issues. Theoretical Backing Arturo Escobar and Gustavo Estevas post-development theory supports the argument that multinational corporations such as Coca-Cola and PepsiCo have only caused more problems in India rather than creating economic prosperity. Escobar explains that economic diversity is lost with modernization and development, which is what is happening in India. Their economy is highly based on the success of corporations within their country. The post-development theory also explains that environmental destruction is a negative result of modernization in third-world countries such as India. One of the major concerns with Coca-Cola and PepsiCo in Kerala, India are the environmental concerns, including polluted water, water depletion, and agricultural problems. The whole reason that Coca-Cola and PepsiCo have built factories in India is because it is the cheapest for them overall and there are less safety regulations. The government of India was convinced that allowing these factories to be built within their country would bring them economic prosperity (Raman, 2010, pg. 255), which has not necessarily happened. This could easily be linked to Andre Gunder Franks underdevelopment theory because the money that Coca-Cola and PepsiCo have made from their factories in India is immense and has brought development back to the north, however, it has only caused underdevelopment to occur within India and has brought on many internal problems. The main idea of the underdevelopment theory is that development in the Global North has caused underdevelopment in the Global South. It is the idea that these countries are not undeveloped, but they are still not as developed as the countries and companies exploiting them, which is the case in India. Looking at the base reasons as to why transnational corporations such as the Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo would want to have factories in India can be linked to the theory of neoliberalism, which supports the idea of globalization and privatization. The reasons that these corporations are spreading themselves around the world is for more profit, which is an important part of neoliberalism. India itself has been becoming increasingly liberalized since the 1990s, as the country previously did not allow corporations like Coca-Cola to be sold or produced within the country, but it is now open to corporations. Overall, the argument of this paper will be based on the post-development theory, but the phenomenon of these corporations existing in India is based on neoliberalism. Research Analysis The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo corporations have had negative impacts in India in three major ways: first, they have been the cause for several environmental problems, especially with water depletion and agriculture. Secondly, many health problems have arisen out the pollution and pesticides used by the two corporations; and lastly, although they may contribute to the macroeconomics of the world, local economies in India have been virtually destroyed because of Coca-Cola and PepsiCo. Looking firstly at the issue of environmental issues that have arisen in India (namely within Plachimada in Kerala), water shortages and lack of safe drinking water have been the cause for major debate (Aiyer, 2008). The Coca-Cola Company was extracting anywhere from 500,000 to 1.5 million liters of groundwater a day (it takes roughly 3 liters of groundwater to make 1 liter of soft drink or 1 liter of bottled water) (p. 645). Plachimada was once a very plentiful place with a great amount of groundwater, which is why Coca-Cola originally decided to build up its factory there (Raman, 2007, p. 107). However, now residents are left with very little water for self-consumption, and in some areas, the water is not safe to drink at all (Hyams, 2004; Vedwan et al., 2007). This brings in a question of, who owns the water? Human rights suggests that water should be provided free to whoever needs it, but now Coca-Cola and PepsiCo own the only safe water, which has caused many legal issues in the recent past. Vedwan (2007) explains that there are simply not enough regulations governing the quality of commercial bottled beverages, which shows how multinational corporations often take advantage of underdeveloped countries like India. In Ghoshrays article (2007), Searching for Human Rights to Water amidst Corporate Privatization in India: Hindustan Coca-Cola Pvt. Ltd. v. Perumatty Grama Panchayat, he writes, At the heart of the case lies perhaps the most poignant legal battle of the current century: the corporate right to privatization versus the indigenous right to water,(1). Basically, the issue of water depletion in Plachimada has brought on many local economic problems. Agriculture is the largest industry in Kerala, India, but now many farmers can no longer afford to live happily (Aiyer, 2008, p. 650). Agriculture, once the backbone of the economy and the key source of capital accumulation, now only contributes 25 percent to the national GDP even as 75 percent of the population is dependent on it, (Hyams, 650). Their crops cannot grow without a sufficient amount of rainfall and groundwater. This means that local economies have been falling due to the Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo factories in India, even though the companies have brought money into the country as a whole. The Indian Government will also have to start paying for this problem because if soil degradation gets worse, importing more foods may become necessary. Therefore, this issue is actually not good economically for much of India. Closely linked with environmental degradation, the health of the people in and amongst the area of Coca-Cola and PepsiCo has also become an issue. Hyams article, Killa-Cola (2004) explains that people had become getting sick just months after the Coca-Cola Plant was built in Kerala. The waters were eventually tested by the government, and it was declared that the once clean water was no longer drinkable. For the locals living in Plachimada, this news was terrible because for many, the local groundwater was their only source of clean water. Now women are expected to walk miles for fresh water each day (Raman, 2007, p. 110). Not only that, but Coca-Cola had suggested that local farmers use their fertilizer on their fields for better crops. The farmers were encouraged to spread the sludge on their land; the corporation said it was an excellent fertilizer that would improve their yields. This provided a cheap and convenient waste disposal mechanism for the factory (Hyams, 2004). Little d id they know that the sludge contained dangerous levels of toxic metals including lead, cadmium, and chromium. So not only were the people of Plachimada being poisoned by their water, but also by their food thanks to Coca-Cola. This problem has costed a lot of money for the Indian Government to deal with, and will surely cost more for them in the future. Sludge on the fields, however, was not the only health concern when Coca-Cola came to Plachimada. The drinks themselves, according to Raman (2007) and Ciochetto (2004), were also contaminated with pesticides. In India, however, it was the thoughtless ecological degradation that laid the land to waste and the poisonous content of the soft drinks themselves that were condemned by villagers and activists alike (Raman, 2007, p. 106). This issue is what ultimately brought most publicity to Kerala, India against the Coca-Cola Company. Even after this point, the CEOs of both PepsiCo and Coca-Cola did not really change their ways. In fact, Vedwans article (2007) explains, Perhaps, the most paradoxical act to undo the effects of bad publicity came from the PepsiCo CEO when he publicly opposed the adoption of European norms for beverages sold in India (p. 671). This ultimately leads to increased underdevelopment in Kerala and other areas being affected by the drinking corporations because the people of the region are basically sinking deeper into poverty without sufficient water, increased disease, and lack of food . The post-development theory supports this. The last reason as to why the Coca-Cola and Pepsi corporations have had a negative impact on the overall society in India is economic-based. Although the corporations have helped stimulate the macroeconomics, it is clear that the micro or local economies in India have become even worse that they had been in the past (Raman, 2010, p. 254). Aiyers article (2008), for example, mentions that the agriculture sector, which used to be the largest sector in India, now only accounts for 25 percent of the GDP compared to the 75 percent of the population who relies on it. Seventy percent of this rural population faces daily hunger in terms of caloric intake, (p. 650) This fact has also led to a widespread physical depression in the rural areas of India, where an average of seven suicides per farmer happen each day (ibid). The corporations influence over India is massive, which is overall good economically for the countries in control (the United States), but not so much for India. According to Raman (2007), The Coca-Cola marketing system is an example of how the culture of consumerism is rendered essential to individuals perceptions of culture and self-worth (p. 109) Hyams notes that, Coca-Cola, which is the biggest US corporate investor in India, has the countrys law makers in the palm of its hand, (2004). Although the above statement may show some bias against Coca-Cola, it is for the most part true. Even in 2006 when the state of Kerala in India banned the use of Coca-Cola and Pepsi products, there was so much pressure from the government and corporations that the ban only lasted for one month (Aiyer, 2008, p. 640). It should also not be forgotten that while so many people are being starved in the towns where these companies exist, Coca-Cola and Pepsi are making around $2 billion per year in profit in India (Aiyer, 2008, p. 641). Overall, the above points provide truth as to why Coca-Cola and PepsiCo have had more of a negative effect on India overall rather than the positive effect that we are tricked into thinking exists. The academic journal articles referenced above support this thesis by proving that there has been environmental devastation, health problems, and economic issues caused by the Coca-Cola and Pepsi factories in the Kerala state in India. Conclusions: Overall, the issue of multinational corporations exploiting developing countries is nothing new, and countries going through rapid expansion, such as India, want corporations to come so that they can build a strong GDP. Looking specifically at Coca-Cola and Pepsi in India, it is easy to see that there have been many more negative aspects of having these corporations in India than positive aspects, even economically. The environmental degradation and health problems have caused many internal problems within Indian communities, and rather than bringing economic prosperity, it is clear that economic problems have resulted from Coca-Cola and Pepsi setting up factories in these villages. This brings us to the question of whether multinational corporations are really a good thing or not. We use their products everyday in North America, and most people share a common belief that they have helped build economies. Not only that, but we daily hear about the good things that corporations are doing for us and the events that they sponsor, such as the Olympics; but we must question what is happening behind the scenes of all of this. Looking at the issue of Coca-Cola and Pepsi in India is just a small example of the problems that multinational corporations have caused worldwide. Also, we must question if these corporations are really bringing development to a country, or rather causing underdevelopment, as Coca-Cola and Pepsi seem to be doing in the Kerala province. Finally, is neoliberalism the answer? It seems like there have been so many problems that have arisen from it. That being said, Escobar and Estevas underdevelopment theory is becoming increasingly popular as the world begins to realize what multinational corporations and neoliberalism is doing to separate the rich-poor gap between the North and South. Is globalization all that great? By looking Plachimadas case, most would come to the conclusion that it is not. These are the types of questions that can be considered when looking at the issue of Coca-Cola and PepsiCo not only in India, but all around the world. Video Conferencing: Advantages and Disadvantages Video Conferencing: Advantages and Disadvantages The exponential growth in the knowledge based society triggered by the equally strong impact of information technology and its various tools have expanded the human intellectual creativity. Information technology portal has thus enabled both the analysis as well as the development of ideas and concepts between individuals with the access of a simple computer and a telephone connection. The combination of a computer, a telephone and the services of an Internet Service Provider have given birth to a number of users to accomplish targets previously deemed to be impossible. The synergy of both information technology and the people behind the computer have resulted in the accomplishment of goals, in turn providing excellent results for their respective organizations. One such area of this new mode of exchanging information amongst the various information technology portals is video-conferencing, a development which has further reduced costs and time to take decisions, meet people, interac t, learn and teach even from the comfort of their living or board rooms respectively. Certainly one of the most informative modes of telecommuting, video-conferencing has emerged as a strong tool for exchanging information, imparting training, and learning/teaching varied courses in both the business and academic environments. The following paper will strive to present some of the salient aspects and characteristics of video-conferencing, its uses, advantages, disadvantages, as well as analyse it from the perspective of business organizations, with a particular focus on use of video-conferencing as a means of communication for venue providers and event management organizations. Our present day environment is evidence of an era in which time is the essence, and in majority of instances of crucial importance. This is true for both the fiercely competitive business environment as well as the ever fast pace of the knowledge based industries. A brief overview of the developments in the last two decades would reveal that the global economy has shown a somewhat similar set of trends as was witnessed during the era of industrialization some three centuries ago. Thus, one can easily observe the gradual transition from the industrial based economies to the present day knowledge based economy. This can be evidenced in practically every sphere of life, including but not limited to businesses, private and social lives. The onset and spread of information technology and its various modes are largely responsible for this significant transition. Today, access to information is not the domain of a few groups/regions and individuals, neither can it manipulated; instead acces s to information is now possible through a personal computer, a telephone connection, and services of an Internet Service Provider. This has resulted in transforming information into one of the biggest challenges, and into fully developed knowledge based economy. Those with the latest information in their respective disciplines are assumed successful, and this is only possible through the appropriate use of the modern tools of information technology, with video-conferencing as being one such tool. Such is the gravity, and need to acquire knowledge that one has to practically stay a few steps ahead of their nearest competitor, simply to exist in the present day competitive environment. The market dynamics and realities of respective industries practically force individuals and organizations alike to stay abreast and compete in the face of the allied challenges successfully. This is only possible by accepting challenges, however intricate and large they may be, and converting them int o effective source of knowledge. Using technology as a conduit for access to this knowledge not only saves significant resources, but also the factor of time as a crucial aspect is fully exploited and saved. It is this saving of time and resources that have given rise to such tools as video-conferencing, providing an edge to the patterns of doing business and living a successful life. Though marred by a number of drawbacks and disadvantages, video-conferencing has nevertheless emerged as one of the most effective tools of communications in the present day business environment; and it is this mode of modern communication, which will comprise a larger segment of the following paper. According to the information accessed from the web pages of www.whatis.com, videoconference is a means of communication between two groups of people from separate locations. Generally, video-conference involves the use of a audio, video, and ancillary equipment enabling both the groups of people to see, hear and converse with each other from multiple locations. Emerging from the environment of a boardroom, classroom, or a manufacturing site, video-conferencing provides each party to interact with each other as if they were sitting in front of each other in the same room. The single most important advantage of video-conferencing has been the provision of or enhancement of speed for the business processes and operations, just as the use of e-mail and facsimile has speeded up access to information. Some of the major benefits derived from video-conferencing include, but are not limited to cost savings in travel, accommodation, staff time, greater and enhanced communication amongst employ ees at distant locations, and between suppliers and customers. (Video Conferencing UK, 2005) As also briefly outlined in the opening paragraphs, it is the access to information and knowledge that has enabled individuals and organizations to stay abreast of their nearest competitors, an aspect that is true for businesses an academia alike. Simply put, a business organization cannot remain competitive if it does not have access to advance information in its respective industry; similarly a teacher cannot impart education/training to its pupils if he/she remains behind latest set of researches and information about their respective subjects. Acknowledging the fact that the present day era in fact comprises of a networked environment, the importance of video-conferencing takes on truly dynamic dimensions. This is all the more true in the face of global events which can leave a devastating effect on the local and international economy, and upon which no individual, organization or country can command any measure of control. Examples of such global events that have shattered economies, devastated entire countryside’s, and left a trail of human misery and loss of property include the tragic events of September 11, the SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) virus of South East Asia, the devastating tidal waves of Tsunami destroying precious life and property from Island of Maldives in South East Asia to the shores of Dar-es-Salaam in the East African country of Tanzania. It is events such as stated in the preceding lines which makes the importance of communication tool of video-conferencing ever more critical in the present day environment. The need for information technology tools such as video-conferencing is further precipitated in view of the diverse nature of our societies across the globe, which in turn give rise to political, economic, and social risks, the threat of global diseases, terrorism including bio-terrorism either or all of which then pose a significant challenge not only to the productivity and economics of a nation, but to the individuals and organizations across the globe as well. Just as the significant nature of advances in medical research that have triggered a revolution in the treatment and care of variety of diseases, the revolution in information technology has accomplished similar results, providing and collecting crucial data and information from every corner of the globe and atmosphere for the general benefit of global populations. Information technology tools such as video-conferencing have thus made it possible for providing better productivity and enhanced performance in our organization s allowing general populations to take preventive and corrective action in the face of emergencies, crisis situations, or even using it to raise production levels and launching new and better products in the face of severe competitions. Video-conferencing thus aids in the accomplishment of performance excellence, provides for an advance information portal to thwart off threats of disease, spread of virus, the onset of incoming natural calamities including storms, cyclones such as those witnessed in the Tsunami of December of 2004. It is thus essential for practically all businesses, academic institutions, government agencies, and the general populations to develop their respective multi-cultural and technology supported communication systems so that they are better able to address either of the said contingencies, and engage and use information technology tools including video-conferencing to accomplish the same. (Andersen, 2004) Though the above sections have briefly outlined the growing importance of video-conferencing as an important tool of information technology, the following review of articles are a further attempt to provide evidence to this respect. The first article is titled Online In the Outback: The Use of Videoconferencing by Australian Aborigines authored by Mark Hodges and published in Technology Review issue of April 1996. Upon reading the said article by Mark Hodges, it was evident that while the use of video-conferencing still remained a remote idea and its application still under-utilized in countries such as the United States of America and other European countries, the Warlpiri aborigines of Tanami region of Australias Northern Territory have been effectively using this technology since 1993. The exchange of information through the use of video-conferencing given the name of Tanami Network taking its name from the region links some four settlements of Walpiri aborigines, as well as with the major Australian cities of Sydney, Darwin, and Alice Springs. The use of video-conferencing for these aborigines has proved to such a successful venture that the aborigines are able to communicate and gain vital information from a number of government service providers located in the said urban cities; while at the same time video-conferencing has also provided these Walpiri aborigines access to customers and business organizations for Walpiri arts and crafts, established links with other Australian aborigines and with indigenous populations living in countries of the world. Also used for consultations amongst the aborigine leaders to arrive at important decisions for their traditional ceremonies and community related issues, the use of video-conferencing has successfully been expanded for such applications as access to educational programmes including adult and secondary education, teacher training, legal assistance, social security, and access for remote health care. In essence, the Tanami Network, using the video-conferencing tool of information technology has thus provided these Australian aborigines an excellent portal for enhancing their quality of family and community life. Perhaps the single most important advantage gained by the use of video-conferencing technology by the Australian aborigines has been to overcome lack of communication factor within the close circle of family and friends, which even today stands threatened by alarming influence of Australian western culture as well as the geographic isolation of these fragile aborigines across the Australian continent. Thus, video-conferencing has been successfully used in areas of education, ceremonial functions, decision-making, and access to health care, promotion of Aborigine artifacts arts and culture, and access to businesses located in urban areas of Australia, as well as far off places such as London and the United States of America respectively. The link created by video-conferencing with the aborigines living in other parts of the world is yet another major accomplishment of this technology. The use of video-conferencing has thus resulted in the creation of a close network with Saami of Scandinavia, the Inupiat of Alaska, the Inuit of Canada, and the Little Red Cree Nation living in the state of Alberta in Canada. A similar video-conferencing network also in Australia provided aborigine students of New South Wales the opportunity to continue secondary education. Providing a link between 4 schools situated in remote locations, the students use the video-conferencing technology to finish the final 2 years of their education, against the option to either drop out of school, or the more expensive option of joining a boarding school located at a distance ranging from 200 to 400 kilometers. In addition to the crucial opportunity to continue education for the aborigine students, the video-conferencing technology also provides these populations with topics and subjects otherwise not available within the confines of the aborigine community. (Hodges, 1996; Fischer, 1992; Munn, 1973; Young, 1995) The above sections have briefly provided some of the salient features and uses of video-conferencing in present day environment, as well as touched upon the subject of some of the situations where video-conferencing as a tool of information technology can save precious lives and property. The following section comprises of a brief overview of the development of video-conferencing over the last 5 years in particular, and its introduction as an important tool for exchanging information over the last few decades. A brief on the development over the last 3 decades of information technology shows that, indeed video-conferencing emerged as one of the most viable forms of communication as compared to the standard telephone set originally created by Graham Bell. Some of the first impressions of video-conferencing reveal that it comprises of being expensive, does not portray the images as may be required, may not work due to inadequate bandwidths or unavailability of a suitable phone connection, difficulties in establishing the ancillary equipment such as the monitors and the network of cords and wires, or as simple excuses as the way people would actually appear on a monitor screen, and the list simply may go on. Yet, all these and other excuses are now history, as the last 5 years have witnessed a tremendous growth and development of an entirely new set of equipment together with relevant advances in telecommunication technology. This has made the use of video-conferencing mode of communication not only cost effective; but the hardware and software now in use are fairly easy to use with minimum of training required. This has fulfilled the two most important demands of the business circles across the globe; first video-conferencing has brought a significant reduction in travel expenses, and secondly, it has made communication between people scattered across continents fairly simple and within the grasp of general populations/communities. In fact studies carried out by Wainhouse Research noted that since the onset of easy-to-use software, cost effective hardware and access to telephone lines in the last 2 years, there has been a steady growth of approximately 30 percent in annual revenues across the video-conferencing industry. The availability of such equipment as web-camera is yet another evolution which has turned a simple desk-top computer into a digital-media thus changing the traditional video-conferencing technology into a new spectrum, and providing practically everyone with a desk-top, a telephone line, and a good Internet connection with a modern video-conferencing technology. The last 5 years have also witnessed the introduction of Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) -based networks with Internet Protocol (IP) systems, even though the first still dominate majority of the videoconference industry across the globe. Studies carried out by Frost Sullivan on the use of Internet noted that more than 95 percent of the videoconferences used the ISDN networks; the same study also noted that 20 percent of the entire video-conferencing by groups and organizations was done through the Internet Protocol, and more than 92 percent of personal video-conferencing was IP based respectively. A brief comparison between IP based networks for video-conferencing and ISDN networking shows that IP based networking for video-conferencing is economical, provides for an exchange of information and data in a better manner, offers an easy integration option of video-conferencing and desk-top computers, and the facility of a better managed video-conferencing network. The same study also show that by next year, the differences between ISDN based network and IP-based networks for video-conferencing will be practically eliminated. Another major development in the video-conferencing industry is the growing demand for managing video-conferencing by organizations at their own premises and using the same staff. Respective employees in the information technology departments such as storage of data and e-mail management in addition to the responsibilities already handle this. With the new responsibilities of managing video-conferencing over traditional networking functions, this is indeed a major shift in the video-conferencing industry. The new trends of using desktop computers as hubs for video-conferencing are also a source of worry for companies and organizations engaged with or providing specific software and equipment for the video-conferencing industry. Some of the organizations worthy of mentioning involved in products and services for the video-conferencing industry include Avaya, Cisco, Microsoft, and Nortel Networks. With the desktop computer already in use as a hub for video-conferencing, the video-conferencing industry is coming up with ever-new developments and technologies constantly in search of upgrading the quality of both audio and video images to be transmitted over the network. Some of the modern tools introduced include the videophone, a product launched by Motorola/World Gate Communications, which transmits full-motion video images with an excellent audio levels requiring a high speed Internet connection, yet in appearance it is simply a cellular (mobile) phone. The LCD-Integrated Display is yet another modern tool for communication. This is an advanced version and a combination of integrated video-conferencing codecs, cameras, microphones and speakers all installed within the desktop computer. Already introduced by three major manufacturers, namely Polycom, Sony and Tanberg, each of the companies have successfully launched their products featuring the said characteristics for videoconferencing. Sonys model PCS-TL50 perhaps stands out as the most advanced version, as it can perform the double function of desktop computer display, as well as easily switched on to video-conference monitor. Another development is the software based video-conferencing technology. Polycoms desktop model PVX is one such example of this new technology, which only requires a USB web-cam, a desktop computer, and software from either of the vendors in the video-conferencing industry. The significant feature of software-based video-conferencing is that it offers high-resolution pictures and high levels of audio. Polycoms PVX model offers a 30-frames per second picture frame, while the quality of sound is at 14kHz; making it one of best performing information technology tools in video-conferencing. (Regenold, 2005) As also reiterated in the above sections of the paper, the information technology portal of video-conferencing has proved its worth due to its tremendous potential to reach anywhere and at any time. In addition, the physical presence is totally eliminated for imparting training, education, or merely exchanging information with employees of the same organization. An overview of the different situations and sectors where video-conferencing is widely applied includes education and professional training, though it is also used in vital meetings amongst board members of an organization situated in distant locations across the globe. Though professional training and corporate application in business organization is said to be the most important application of video-conferencing, it is the arena of education where its application has proved most beneficial. As also described in the above case studies of Aborigines of Australia receiving feedback and information from distant locations as far as London and the United States of America, or receiving education within the vast territories of the Australian continent, video-conferencing has truly added new dimensions in the discipline of education. One may note that though video-conferencing in the arena of education has been in practice for a number of years, its combination with online form of education has added significant value to the discipline of education. Both these technologies of video-conferencing and Online have thus not only improved the quality of education as visual cues and body language are utilized in video-conferencing, the technological pairing of the two has allowed for the provision of education experts without the need to physically call them. Thus, both the factor of time and place have been made independent, as also bringing a significant reduction in the costs of travel that would otherwise be required to move experts from one location to another. (Reed Woodruff, 1995; Willis, 1996) From the above it would be evident that video-conferencing and Online mode of education when combined truly offers an excellent form of imparting education minus the numerous obstacles that may be required in the absence of both the said technology portals. However, there are numerous studies which provide significant evidence that video-conference even when combined with Online form of education has its own set of limitations, and perhaps these limitations are the reasons for the inability to make video-conferencing a virtual success. One such limitation, and perhaps greatest obstacle is the lack of interaction amongst the participants of a conference-conference. Also termed as talking heads, this format of imparting education and training is observed to loose its viability in the absence of true interaction, or failure to encourage participants to actively participate in the respective education/training program. In this context, one may observe that a face-to-face presentation comprising of no less than 50-minutes is it a tiring experience for the participants, and to bear a lecture through video-conferencing is practically an impossible exercise. As also evident through a number of studies, a one-sided lecture can only remain productive, or majority of participants remain active listeners for a maximum of 20 minutes only. After the passage of approximately 20 minutes into the one-sided lecture, an atmosphere of drowsiness can be witnessed amongst the participants. It is this fact, due to which video-conferencing even with the assistance of Online technology has not really been a favorite form of imparting education or training. There are however two methods or solutions for addressing such dilemmas as the lack of interaction amongst the participants. First is the pedagogical approach, while the second solution is through the effective use of technological aides. In the pedagogical approach for addressing the lack of interaction amongst the participants, there are three basic principals, which can provide avenues for active participation from the participants. First point is breaking the ice. These are creation of an atmosphere which provides for a motivating factor, in turn pushing the participants to actively take part in the ongoing lecture while there are amidst a video-conference; this motivation and the respective atmosphere also allows for overcoming feelings of self-consciousness. This is also called breaking the ice. Secondly, the shorter a lecture and more focused it is, the better outcome in the shape of interaction by the participants, as well as easy transfer of knowledge/training text is observed. One way to accomplish this, and make presentations short is to provide a break after every 20 minutes, and engage the participants in some form of activity. Third point, and perhaps the most important is the officering participants to get involved in the interaction, and not to leave upon them to decide whether or not to participate. This factor is also important, as it allows for both breaking the ice, as well as breaking the same lecture or training session into a number of segments, each supported by a separate form of activity from the participants. Involving participants and engaging them for active interaction can be accomplished by involving them in debates between number of experts of the same discipline, through the adoption of role models or role-playing, putting controversial questions to the participants so that they are able to offer a variety of answers to the same question, instead of asking a question which only has one answer. This third point of involving the participants also implies that interaction amongst the participants has to pre-planned prior to the actual video-conference session, and cannot be simply pursued d uring the respective session or educational text. Though this form of inviting and engaging the participants is truly effective in delivering a truly successful lecture or training program whether professional or educational, its single largest drawback lies in the fact that this can only practiced and implemented in a live presentation or videoconference. Addressing the dilemma or failure to actively participate in a videoconference from a technological perspective can be accomplished through the application of recorded messages, or training programmes. In this manner, the participants can gain access to the respective educational/ training material at the their own disposal, normally through the use of Internet. (Shearer, 2003; Kunz, 2000) It allows for the utilization of existing and proven technologies. There is significantly little training required. Video-conferencing can be used in a number of settings, environments, and configurations. It is one of the most practical tools for creating a direct liaison with both audio as well as visual linkages amongst the participants. The operating costs are comparatively less, and this too depends on the distance and number of sites. Taking the case of an interview of a potential candidate by a committee of officials within an organization (such as interviewing a candidate to fulfill a faculty position in an academic institution) shows that advantages of video-conferencing far outweigh the disadvantages. First of all, convenience of the applicant is at the forefront followed by significant reduction in travel costs, time otherwise needed for the primary responsibilities. Then there is the additional advantage of videotaping the entire proceedings of the interview, for later screening, as well as for those concerned officials who may not be available for the interview. One of the profound and proven advantages of video-conferencing has been observed in the teaching/learning environment of academic institutions. With exponential growth in the learning/teaching environment, in particular through the use of Online forms of education, videoconference has provided new dimensions to the teaching and learning situations. Though there emerges the need for specific equipment and personnel for video-conferencing, the basic requirement of an Internet Service Provider, a laptop or computer and a web-camera are all that is required for video-conferencing to take place. Video-conferencing has also found tremendous advantages amongst teachers and pupils for a one-to-one teaching format, and communication with small groups of students located in distance locations. This is particularly true since the onset of Internet as a means of direct communication. The same application has also found tremendous advantages for business communications for both long distance meetings, and one-to-one contact with employees located in distance branches of the respective organization. Though relatively less in usage, the use of ISDN conferencing is an advanced version of video-conferencing, which provides for significantly better quality of both audio and video. The principle usage of the ISDN form of conference-conference is in the learning/ teaching environment where there exists the need to ask the expert. It is this advantage of calling upon external experts in far off locations that this ISDN video-conferencing is best applied. Another advantage of this form of video-conferencing is the facility to support entire group of professionals or students and involve them in the teaching/learning environment through direct interaction. One of the disadvantages of video-conferencing is observed in the initial establishment costs, which can be high as compared to traditional modes of meetings. Video-conferencing is still considered an evolving technology, hence standardization and its usage is yet to be fully developed. One of the major restraining factors and a disadvantage of video-conferencing is the inadequate infrastructure of local telephone networks, which is one of the prime requisites. Expansion of video-conferencing facilities and locations require substantial financing, hence its utility remains limited. The operational costs of videoconference also serve as an impediment. Taking the same example of an interview of a candidate by a team of officials of an organization, there also exist disadvantages of video-conferencing; these can include potential technical difficulties such as problems with the software, hardware, and/or failure of the network. Though these problems could well be tested prior to the actual event, such as the interview, there is always the possibility of an unexpected technical problem to emerge either before or even during the actual video-conferencing activity. A major impediment in video-conferencing is the lack of personal interaction, a factor that is often regarded as an important feature of any meeting, interview or feedback. A prime example of lack of personal interaction can be observed in the ever-important handshake that is considered an important aspect in the conclusion of a business meeting, or the successful completion of an interview. Then there is the aspect of eye contact, which too remains absent during a videoconference; as eye-contact serves as an important feature for physical assessment of an individual (such as an applicant during an interview), and situations during a videoconference. Another disadvantage observed during a videoconference is the absence of trained and support personnel, in turn creating a host of problems for participants who may be unfamiliar with the video-conferencing equipment/environment, with the result that the same videoconference would make matters worse instead of providing facility for the participants. The disadvantages observed in the ISDN form of video-conferencing are the relative high costs incurred in the installation, rental and call charges. In addition the specific equipment for video-conferencing required for supporting ISDN too is costly. Then there is the difficult pattern of understanding data collaboration in ISDN, which is difficult to use, making it a disadvantage for video-conferencing. Conclusion The above paper strives to present the topic of video-conferencing in a number of perspectives, and provides evidence in respect of the popularity one of the most advanced forms of communication prevalent today in various industries. Whether it is the arena of academia, business organizations, professional trainers, to government offices, the information technology portal of video-conferencing h